In the later Vedic period, iron was known by which name?

The correct answer is B, the Samaveda. Its verses are largely borrowed from the Rigveda but are arranged to be sung to fixed melodies during sacrifices, and those melodies are the earliest record of musical notation in India, which is why the Samaveda is called the root of Indian classical music.

Option A, the Rigveda, is a collection of hymns recited in praise of the gods rather than sung to a tune, and it is remembered as the oldest Veda with 1,028 hymns. Option C, the Yajurveda, gives the formulas a priest utters while performing a sacrifice and is the only Veda written partly in prose. Option D, the Atharvaveda, contains charms, spells, cures and material on everyday life, and was the last collection to be accepted as a Veda. Papers often place all four together, so fix one identifying word to each: hymns, melody, formula and charm.

The correct answer is C, the Parushni, known today as the Ravi. The seventh mandala of the Rigveda describes how Sudas, the king of the Bharata tribe, defeated a confederacy of ten tribes on its banks, and the battle is the clearest political event recorded in the whole of Rigvedic literature.

Option A, the Vitasta, is the modern Jhelum, and option D, the Asikni, is the modern Chenab; both lay within the Rigvedic homeland but neither is connected with this battle. Option B, the Shutudri, is the modern Sutlej, again one of the seven rivers but not the site of the fight. Examiners like this question because it tests two things at once, the event and the pair of old and modern river names, so memorise the pairs Vitasta for Jhelum, Asikni for Chenab, Parushni for Ravi, Vipasha for Beas and Shutudri for Sutlej.

The correct answer is D, the tenth mandala. The Purusha Sukta describes the sacrifice of the cosmic being from whose parts the brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra are said to have come, and it is the first statement of the fourfold varna order. The tenth mandala is one of the latest parts of the Rigveda, which is why historians argue that the varna order hardened only towards the end of the early Vedic period.

Option A, the third mandala, is where the Gayatri Mantra appears, addressed to the sun god Savitri. Option B, the seventh mandala, records the Battle of Ten Kings. Option C, the ninth mandala, is devoted entirely to Soma. Because papers ask about all four of these mandalas, the safest way to remember them is as a set: three for Gayatri, seven for Dasarajna, nine for Soma and ten for Purusha Sukta.

The correct answer is B, Indra. He is the god of rain and of war, called Purandara, the breaker of forts, and the largest number of Rigvedic hymns is addressed to him, which matches a people whose life turned on rainfall and on cattle raids.

Option A, Agni, the god of fire, stands second and is treated as the messenger who carries offerings from men to the gods; the very first hymn of the Rigveda is addressed to him, and candidates often confuse that first place with the largest number. Option C, Varuna, is the guardian of rita, the cosmic and moral order, an important but less frequently invoked god. Option D, Prajapati, is a later Vedic figure: he becomes the supreme creator only in the Brahmanas, by which time Indra and Agni had lost their old importance. The rise of Prajapati is itself a favourite question.

The correct answer is C, the Saraswati. The Rigveda praises it as the naditama, the best or holiest of rivers, and treats it as a goddess as well as a stream. It is believed to have dried up later, which is why it does not carry the same importance in the texts of the following centuries.

Option B, the Sindhu, is a strong distractor because it is the river mentioned most often in the Rigveda, but frequency and sanctity are two different questions and papers deliberately place the two together. Option A, the Ganga, is mentioned only once, in the tenth mandala, and option D, the Yamuna, three times; their rarity is itself the evidence that the early Vedic people lived in the north-west and moved east only later. Remember the pair: Sindhu most mentioned, Saraswati most praised.